A New Interventional Bronchoscopy Technique for the Treatment of Bronchopleural Fistula

Evan Denis Schmitz, MD

Abstract

A patient receiving mechanical ventilation with multiple left hydropneumothoraces had a persistent air leak through the thoracostomy tube. The leak was temporarily resolved by interventional bronchoscopy at the bedside in the ICU. Because of the limited resources available at the hospital, a Swan-Ganz catheter was inserted into the left upper lobe bronchus, inflated and left in place. The air leak ceased and the left upper lobe bronchus was occluded with an autologous blood plug by infusing the patient’s own blood through the distal port of the catheter. The patient’s oxygenation improved significantly. The effects persisted for 2.5 hours until the air leak returned while the patient remained intubated. Such a technique may be useful when managing persistent air leaks.

Introduction

An air leak during mechanical ventilation despite the insertion of a thoracostomy tube can be detected by the bubbling of air through the air seal in the chest drainage system (1). A persistent air leak (PAL) is often defined as persistence of the air leak beyond 24 hours, which can hinder ventilation and inhibit lung expansion. Furthermore, the leak may inhibit healing of the fistula between the lung and the pleural space. Recommendations for the management of PALs include surgical repair as the gold standard for treatment (1,2). However, published anecdotal reports describe successful treatment of PALs with endobronchial insertion of fibrin sealants, ethanol injection, metal coils, Watanabe spigots and endobronchial valves. Success is also reported with chemical and autologous blood patch pleurodesis (1). We report a bedside interventional bronchoscopy technique using a Swan-Ganz catheter for the treatment of PALs while intubated and ventilated. A Swan-Ganz catheter is inserted into a lobar bronchus using direct visualization with a bronchoscope, the balloon is inflated and left in place while an autologous blood plug is created utilizing the distal port of the catheter.

Case Presentation

A 69-year-old man with no prior medical contact presented to the emergency department with severe shortness of breath and altered mental status. He was intubated in the emergency department for hypoxia. On arrival to the ICU he was in hypoxic respiratory failure and septic shock with a PaO₂ in the 40s. His ventilator plateau pressures were 40-50 cm H₂O. Chest radiography revealed moderate pneumomediastinum and multiple loculated hydropneumothoraces involving the left lung with suspected necrotic left upper lobe (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Portable AP chest x-ray showing left lung loculated hydropneumothoraces in the apex, medial and lateral walls of the left chest, subcutaneous emphysema, mediastinal emphysema and very low lung volumes. There are right apical and lower lobe areas of consolidation. A left thoracostomy tube is in place.

A 32 Fr thoracostomy tube was placed in the left intercostal space lateral to the nipple in the mid-axillary. The larger thoracostomy tube was chosen because of concern that the smaller pig-tailed catheters might not be adequate to control the leak. Plateau pressure improved to 30 cm H2O.

Despite a low tidal volume ventilator strategy and -40 cm H₂O suction through the thoracostomy tube, the patient had an air leak through the thoracostomy tube which continued to bubble in the water seal chamber during both inspiration and expiration. The air leak did not improve over the ensuing 24 hours and subcutaneous emphysema worsened when attempts were made to decrease suction which was confirmed by physical exam and chest x-ray. Selective right lung ventilation led to inadequate ventilation as evidenced by increasing end-tidal CO_2.

To determine and attempt to control the source of the persistent air leak, an interventional bronchoscopy was performed at bedside. Because other devices to such as metal coils, endobronchial valves, fibrin glue and a YAG laser were unavailable, a 6 Fr Swan-Ganz catheter was used. The Swan-Ganz catheter was threaded through the opening of the bronchoscope adaptor down the endotracheal tube to 3 cm above the carina. A flexible bronchoscope was then advanced along the side of the catheter through the bronchoscope adaptor and down the endotracheal tube. The catheter was not inside the working channel of the bronchoscope. The catheter was manipulated along with the bronchoscope, taking advantage of the inherent bend in the catheter, into the left mainstem bronchus and into the left upper lobe bronchus just distal to the lingular bronchus and inflated (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Panel A: Bronchoscopic view showing the Swan-Ganz catheter in the left upper lobe bronchus. Panel B: Chest x-ray confirming the Swan-Ganz catheter in the left upper lobe with the balloon inflated (arrow).

The massive air leak stopped completely. A blood plug was then created by instilling 20 ml of the patient’s own blood into the distal port of the catheter distal to the balloon along with 5 ml of 1:1000 epinephrine. The bronchoscope was used to hold the balloon in place for 10 minutes while the blood clotted. The bronchoscope was carefully removed and the catheter with the balloon inflated was left in place (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Bronchoscopic view showing the catheter passing into the left upper lobe bronchus with the surrounding blood plug.

The bronchoscope adaptor was taped post-bronchoscopy at the opening with an occlusive dressing so no air could leak around the catheter. The patient tolerated the procedure well. The air leak was successfully stopped with no evidence of worsening pneumothoraces. After PaO₂ increased from the 40s on admission to the 170s after the PAL was stopped. Chest x-ray at 1 and 3 hours showed no evidence of worsening pneumothorax with the Swan-Ganz catheter still in place and inflated in the left upper lobe bronchus. After 2.5 hours, a smaller air leak did return but was present only during inspiration.

Discussion

A PAL during mechanical ventilation can be a serious complication of ventilator therapy. It can lead to poor lung expansion, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, direct extension of airway infection into the pleural space, and an inability to maintain positive end-expiratory pressure. Patients with a PAL have increased complications, including ICU readmission, pneumonia, and a longer hospital stay (3,4). Fortunately, it appears to be relatively rare. In a retrospective study only 39 out of 1,700 mechanically ventilated patients had a PAL defined as lasting for greater than 24 hours (5).

The American College of Chest Physicians guidelines published in 2001 and the 2010 British Thoracic Society guidelines on pleural disease recommend waiting for about 4 days and then seeking surgical evaluation for a PAL (2,6). It was recommended that consideration should be given to placing the thoracostomy tube to water seal rather than to suction. However, this may not be possible in patients with a large persistent air leak that complicates ventilation. In those instances, a variety of endobronchial and pleural interventions have been attempted. Although the reports are anecdotal, most achieved success with either none or minimal complications (1). There have been two basic approaches to treat PALs; sealing the air leak from the bronchial side or from the pleural side. Those therapies administered through the bronchoscope include fibrin sealant, metal coils, Watanabe spigots, synthetic hydrogel, platelet gel, endobronchial valves and YAG laser (1). Complications were infrequent and minor. Ethanolamine and ethanol have also been used but there appear to be more complications with those treatments. From the pleural side, blood patch and chemical pleurodesis have been used successfully (1). However, chemical pleurodesis might result in a trapped lung.

The technique reported here can be performed with materials available in the ICU. A torqueable guidewire can be inserted if needed to help increase the catheter stiffness and help with advancement of the catheter into the individual bronchus to identify the source of the bronchopleural fistula. Alternatives to a blood patch might include occlusion of the culprit bronchus with the patient’s own mucus and argon plasma coagulation to form a clot. A blood patch can be used to determine the potential success of a more permanent material to occlude the bronchus, such as a fibrin seal, synthetic hydrogel, laser, or before attempting endobronchial valve placement.

Conclusion

Bedside endobronchial management of PAL is feasible using a flexible bronchoscope and Swan-Ganz catheter for localization, tamponade and delivery of a blood plug.

References

1. Dugan KC, Laxmanan B, Murgu S, Hogarth DK. Management of persistent air leaks. Chest. 2017;152(2):417-23. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Baumann MH, Strange C, Heffner JE. Management of spontaneous pneumothorax: an American College of Chest Physicians Delphi consensus statement. Chest. 2001;119(2):590-602. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Liberman M, Muzikansky A, Wright CD, et al. Incidence and risk factors of persistent air leak after major pulmonary resection and use of chemical pleurodesis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2010;89(3):891-897. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. DeCamp MM, Blackstone EH, Naunheim KS, et al. Patient and surgical factors influencing air leak after lung volume reduction surgery: lessons learned from the National Emphysema Treatment Trial. Ann Thorac Surg. 2006;82(1):197-206. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Pierson DJ, Horton CA, Bates PW. Persistent bronchopleural air leak during mechanical ventilation. A review of 39 cases. Chest. 1986;90(3):321-3. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Havelock T, Teoh R, Laws D, et al. Pleural procedures and thoracic ultrasound: British Thoracic Society Pleural Disease Guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii61-ii76. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Cite as: Schmitz ED. A new interventional bronchoscopy technique for the treatment of bronchopleural fistula. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care. 2017;15(4):174-8. doi: https://doi.org/10.13175/swjpcc120-17 PDF 

January 2016 Critical Care Case of the Month

Sandra L. Till, DO

Banner University Medical Center Phoenix

Phoenix, AZ USA  

History of Present Illness

The patient is an 18-year-old woman who was driving to high school on a frontage road when she fell asleep at the wheel and her car rolled over. She was wearing her seatbelt but there was no airbag deployment. She did not lose consciousness and she was responsive and answering questions at the scene. She self-extricated from the vehicle. She had left arm pain with a boney deformity and she walked to the ambulance that transferred her to the hospital emergency department (ED).

Upon arrival in the ED she appeared pale and had difficulty breathing. In addition to her arm pain with an obvious left humeral fracture she also complained of upper abdominal and anterior chest pain. O2 saturation was initially 90% but declined to 70%.

Which of the following should be ordered immediately? (Click on the correct answer to proceed to the second of six panels)

1. Begin intravenous lines with large bore needles
2. X-ray of humerus
3. Hemoglobin and hematocrit
4. 1 and 3
5. All of the above

Cite as: Till SL. January 2016 critical care case of the month. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care. 2016;12:6-12. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.13175/swjpcc151-15 PDF 

Ultrasound for Critical Care Physicians: The Pleura and the Answers that Lie Within

Heidi L. Erickson MD 

Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Occupational Medicine

University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics

Iowa City, IA

A 67-year-old woman with a 40-pack-year smoking history was admitted to the intensive care unit with acute respiratory failure secondary to adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in the setting of pneumococcal bacteremia. On admission, she required endotracheal intubation and vasopressor support.  She was ventilated using a low tidal volume strategy and was relatively easy to oxygenate with a PEEP of 5 and 40% FiO2. After 48 hours of clinical improvement, the patient developed sudden onset tachypnea and increased peak and plateau airway pressures. A bedside ultrasound was subsequently performed (Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 1. Two- dimensional ultrasound image of the right lung with associated M-mode image.

Figure 2. Two- dimensional ultrasound image of the left lung with associated M-mode image.

What is the cause of this patient’s acute respiratory decompensation and increased airway pressures? (Click on the correct answer for an explanation)

1. Pericardial effusion
2. Pneumothorax
3. Pulmonary edema
4. Pulmonary embolism

Cite as: Erickson HL. Ultrasound for critical care physicians: the pleura and the answers that lie within. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care. 2015;11(6):260-3. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.13175/swjpcc149-15 PDF

Ultrasound for Critical Care Physicians: Lung Sliding and the Seashore Sign

Spencer M. Lee, MD

Gregory T. Chu, MD

Banner Good Samaritan Medical Center

Phoenix, AZ

A 70-year-old Native American woman was having increasing difficulty with ventilation. She had an extensive past medical history including quadriplegia after a motor vehicle accident in 2009, chronic mechanical ventilation since the accident, end-stage renal disease, and diabetes mellitus. A feeding tube had recently been inserted. A portable chest radiograph was performed (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Portable chest radiograph.

A lung ultrasound was performed (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Lung ultrasound of the left lung (upper panel) and of the right lung (lower panel).

M-mode images of the ultrasound are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. M-mode image of the left lung (panel A on left) and the right lung (Panel B on right).

Which of the following are true regarding the images presented? (Click on the correct answer to procced to the next and final panel)

1. The chest x-ray shows the feeding tube in the right lung
2. The M-mode image shows the seashore sign on the left suggestive of a pneumothorax
3. The ultrasound shows an absence of lung sliding on the right suggestive of a pneumothorax
4. 1 and 3
5. All of the above

Reference as: Lee SM, Chu GT. Ultrasound for critical care physicians: lung sliding and the seashore sign. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care. 2014;9(6):337-40. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.13175/swjpcc163-14 PDF

February 2013 Critical Care Case of the Month: Thoracentesis Through the Looking Glass

Clement U. Singarajah MD

Jay E. Blum

Allen R. Thomas MD

Henry Luedy MD

Elijah Poulos MD

Tonya Whiting DO

Phoenix VA Medical Center

Phoenix, AZ

History of Present Illness

A 62 year old man was recently diagnosed with Stage 4 squamous cell left lung cancer with metastases to the pleura, brain and mediastinum. He also had known chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with a FEV1 = 1.96 L and a known left side pleural effusion (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Baseline chest radiograph showing left pleural effusion (red arrow).

He was seen as an outpatient for symptomatic shortness of breath and underwent real time ultrasound guided left sided thoracentesis removing 500 ml of straw-colored fluid. The procedure was uneventful except that near the end, the patient started to cough.  He denied any symptoms post procedure apart from some minor puncture site pain. A routine post procedure chest x-ray was performed (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Post-thoracentesis x-ray (Panel A) and its negative image (Panel B).

What new abnormality is identified on the post-procedure chest x-ray?

1. Left pneumothorax
2. Right pneumothorax
3. Lung “sliding” on the left
4. New pneumonia in the left upper lobe
5. Left hilar retraction

Reference as: Singarajah CU, Blum JE, Thomas AR, Luedy H, Poulos E, Whiting T. February 2013 critical care case of the month: thoracentesis through the looking glass. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care. 2013;6(2):63-74. PDF

RIGHT PLEURAL INSERTION OF A SMALL BORE FEEDING TUBE

Clement U. Singarajah

 Tyler Glenn

Richard A. Robbins

Phoenix VA Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ

Reference as: Singarajah CU, Glenn T, Robbins RA. Right pleural insertion of a small bore feeding tube. Southwest J Pulm Crit Care 2011;2:71-6. (Click here for PDF version)

Abstract

We report a case of a 56 year old man who had a feeding tube inadvertently malpositioned into the right pleural space and had approximately 600 ml of tube feedings infused. After the malposition was recognized, the patient underwent chest tube placement, followed by video assisted thoracic surgery 5 days later. He made an uneventful recovery. The case illustrates the problems with identification and treating feeding tube insertion into the lung.  

Case Presentation

History of Present Illness

A 56 year old male was transferred from another hospital where he had been admitted 9 days earlier for severe community acquired pneumonia secondary to penicillin sensitive Streptococcus pneumoniae, respiratory failure and sepsis syndrome. He had a past medical history of morbid obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hepatitis C, hypertension and had received a pneumococcal vaccination 8 years earlier. His course was complicated by prolonged mechanical ventilation, hypotension resulting in oliguric acute renal failure and atrial fibrillation with a fast ventricular response requiring cardioversion. He had sufficiently improved with antibiotics, hemodialysis and supportive therapy that he was able to be transferred to our hospital. He had a prolonged but uncomplicated course in our intensive care unit (ICU). He was initially unable to be weaned from mechanical ventilation and underwent tracheostomy but was eventually able to tolerate tracheostomy collar and intermittent use of a tracheostomy tube with a speaking valve. He was noted to be intermittently confused and agitated. After 17 days in our ICU, transfer was planned to a general medical floor.  However, prior to leaving our ICU he pulled his feeding tube and another small bore feeding tube was inserted. An abdominal film was performed and he was transferred to the medical floor. After transfer he complained through the night of chest pain and shortness of breath and required increasing inspired oxygen concentrations in order to maintain adequate oxygen saturation. .

Physical Examination

Physical examination was not markedly changed from the previous day. He had a tachycardia of 110, blood pressure of 139/97, respirations of 24, temperature of 36.3 degrees C and weight of 140.6 kilograms. He was not oriented to time or place and seemed to be in moderate discomfort. Pertinent findings including a small bore feeding tube in his left nostril, a tracheotomy in place and rhonchi over both lungs. Abdomen was protuberant but soft and there was no presacral or pretibial edema.

Laboratory Findings

Pertinent laboratory findings included arterial blood gases showing a pH of 7.44, pCO2 of 32 mm Hg, and pO2 of 65.3 on a FiO2 of 0.7. Blood glucose was elevated at 275 and his white blood cell count had increased from 6000/microL on the day of transfer to the floor to 11,400/microL with a left shift.

Radiography

Initial abdominal films are show in figure 1.

Figure 1. Panel A and B are abdominal x-rays taken for feeding tube placement. Panel A shows the feeding tube below the diaphragm indicated by the arrow. Panel B, labeled at the same time and with the same acquisition number does not show the tube below the diaphragm but shows a tube apparently in the right chest. Panel C is an inverted image of Panel B.

A chest X-ray was taken on the patient’s return to the intensive care unit (Figure 2).

Figure 2. A. Chest X-ray shows feeding tube in trachea and right mainstem bronchus, looping in lower right chest and extending to upper right chest (arrows). B. Inverted image of A.

Hospital Course

Because of his high oxygen requirements and dyspnea, the patient was placed on mechanical ventilation. Bronchoscopy confirmed that the tube was in the lung. Due to concern for a pneumothorax should the tube be removed, a chest tube was placed first and directed to drain the pleural effusion. The feeding tube was removed and a follow up chest x-ray confirmed a pneumothorax that was treated with another chest tube. It was estimated that about 600 ml of feeding formula had been infused into the chest. Approximately 700 ml of milky fluid consistent with feeding was collected by the thoracostomy tube. Thoracic surgery consultation was obtained and recommended video-assisted thoracic surgery which was performed 5 days latter. A small amount of what appeared to be feeding formula was removed. He made a slow and uneventful recovery and was discharged to an extended care facility after a total duration of 43 days in our hospital.

Discussion

Malposition of feeding tubes is relatively common (1,2). Given that the tubes are small, relatively flexible and blindly inserted this is not surprising. In a series of more than 2000 insertions, Sorokin and Gottlieb (1) reported a 2.4% rate of lung insertion while de Aguilar-Nascimento and Kudsk (2) found a 3.2% incidence of lung malposition. Most malpositions occurred in the intensive care unit with 95% of the patients having an abnormal mental status and more than half with an endotracheal tube. Therefore, our patient was typical of the patient prone for feeding tube malposition.

To prevent feeding tube malposition, many hospitals insert the tubes under fluoroscopic guidance (3). Perhaps more commonly, other hospitals require radiographic confirmation before beginning feeding (1,2) . The later is the policy at our hospital, but as this case illustrates, mishaps can occur even with this safeguard.

In our case, several errors were made leading to the adverse event. Although recorded at the same time, the initial abdominal films were actually taken at different times. The patient had pulled his first feeding tube and a second tube had been inserted by the ICU nurse into the lung. The medicine house officer who read the films was not informed that two films were taken and saw the tube below the diaphragm on the first film. The house officer missed the tube in the chest on the second film. However, on this and three subsequent films, all read by separate radiologists, the tube malposition was also not identified. It can be difficult with multiple densities, from chest cardiac leads, suction tubing, intravenous tubing, etc. to identify potentially misplaced feeding tubes.

Generally, feeding tube malposition is reasonably well tolerated although aspiration and pneumothorax may result (1-3). Removal of the tube usually results in little apparent clinical harm. Our case is unusual in that an enteral feeding formula was introduced into the pleural space. Although there are previous reports of pneumothorax complication feeding tube insertion, these are relatively uncommon and we were uncertain how to proceed (4).  Eventually we decided on video assisted thoracic surgery with removal of any residual fluid. In this case the patient made an uneventful but prolonged recovery.  

When a feeding tube is in the lung, it may or may not have punctured the pleura. If it has, as was clear in this case by the course it took, (multiple loops), the chance of a pneumothorax on removal may be high. It is a matter of opinion as to whether or not in this situation; a prophylactic chest tube should be placed prior to removal of the feeding tube. In this case, this was performed as he was on mechanical ventilation. In situations where the feeding tube is clearly in a mainstem bronchus, removal is probably safe without due concern for a pneumothorax.

The errors in the formal radiology readings may be reduced by inverting the images within the radiology viewing program, and making sure that the full course of the feeding tube from oropharynx to tip is noted. In some obese patients, such as this one, an abdominal x-ray and chest x-ray may be required to do this.

References

1. Sorokin R, Gottlieb JE. Enhancing patient safety during feeding-tube insertion: a review of more than 2,000 insertions. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2006;30:440-5.

2. de Aguilar-Nascimento JE, Kudsk KA. Clinical costs of feeding tube placement. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2007;31:269-73.

3. Huerta G, Puri VK. Nasoenteric feeding tubes in critically ill patients (fluoroscopy versus blind). Nutrition 2000;16:264-7.

4. Wendell GD, Lenchner GS, Promisloff RA. Pneumothorax complicating small-bore feeding tube placement . Arch Intern Med 1991;151:599-602.